I think if you get into current literature you will find out that for a patched round ball rifle, a standard load would consist of 50% 0f the weight of the ball.

If the projectile weighs 180 grains, a standard load would be 90 grains of powder. This would be called a !00% load. A 100 grain load would be slightly over 110%. All of this jiberish about palms and balls is crazy. Think: how big is your palm, and how much do you cup it? As for bed sheets and testing, how long is your rifle's barrel?

For rifles 50 caliber or bigger you use FF powder. For rifles of 45 caliber or lesser you use FFF powder. When I shot my 45 caliber rifle I used FFF powder, and stayed to not much over a 100 percent charge. My rifle had a 42 inch barrel. I often used FF powder. I never chronographed anything.

Lewis and Clark have been mentioned. If I remember correctly they had their powder sealed into lead flasks that contained half the weight of the flasks. That way they could cast balls out of the flasks, and propelled those balls the powder that the flask contained.

In my 54 caliber patched round ball rifle I used to shoot a pure lead 0.535 ball with a max load of 120 grains of FF powder. My rifles all had Getz radiused grove barrels. These barrels called for .018 lubed patching. My .45 caliber rifle had 1 in 56 twist. My 54 caliber rifle had 1 in 60 or 66 twist.

For minie rifles or slug rifles you are on your own. I would look at Ned Robert's "Muzzle Loading Cap Lock Rifles." One of my favorite fun books to read. A great source.

I suspect if one of the old timers wacked a griz with the first shot and it charged, they poured a bucket full of powder down the bore along with a ball, for the follow up shots rather than stand or tradition!! same for a scalp hunting Lakota...of course they did..